Birth Rates, Contraception Usage, and Demographic Data Relating to the Beachy Amish Mennonite Churches by Cory Anderson

Among Anabaptist groups, the Hutterite Brethren and Old Order Amish have received much attention from demographers and anthropologists. Demographers are attracted to these sects because of the cultural influence on births and family sizes. Little attention has been given, however, to other Anabaptist groups, such as the Amish Mennonites. The “Amish Mennonite” sect is one of several groups that have emerged from the Amish, taking on some conservative Mennonite characteristics. The Beachy Amish Mennonites are by far the largest modern Amish Mennonite group, boasting a membership of just over 10,000 people. This paper analyzes the contemporary Beachy Amish Mennonite demography of birth rates and family sizes and provides a review of Beachy thought on current demographic issues in the constituency.

The Beachys display an historic trend of a decreasing average fertility rate per woman, especially manifest from the 1990s to present. There is also a correlating paradigm shift from larger to smaller families where individual needs are emphasized over the family unit. In further discussion, views of commercial contraception usage are analyzed. There appears to be more acceptance of contraception among Beachys today, whereas the Old Order Amish, from whom the Beachys descend, have historically as well as currently condemn these products (Wasao 1995).

Literature Review

Thus far, no published scientific study has addressed Beachy demographics. However, there have been a number of reproductive studies on the Old Order Amish, the Beachy’s grandfather denomination. Wasao (1995) used data from the Ohio Amish directory for his study. He found that the number of children a couple has is affected by the environment, including economic and cultural forces both within and without the community. He also demonstrated that conservative groups like the Andy Weaver sect have a higher fertility than more liberal Amish groups like the New Order Amish. N.L. Miller (1997) held a focus group session with Amish women. From the study, she concluded that Amish women’s faith affects their decision to have many children, that childbearing is a private matter to be done at home, and that Amish women have little formal knowledge on scientific childbearing practices. Batson (2004) interviewed Amish women to discern how they define and view their menopausal stage. According to one part of the study, Amish women bear children well into their 40s. Allen (2004) studied the births of Old Order Amish women in the Nappanee and Elkhart-LaGrange settlements, comparing the relationship of women giving birth at hospitals versus at home with midwife and hospital capacities, gender roles, and the husband’s occupation, noting the large number of Amish men working in factories.

While there are no formal reproductive studies on the Beachy Amish, several authors have completed family studies. Morris (1995) interviewed eight ordained Beachy leaders to assess the presence of child abuse in five Beachy congregations. He found no cultural factors that promoted child abuse according to Korbin’s Cross-Cultural Model. Korbin’s model (1991) measures child abuse in a culture by analyzing social structures that regulate child-rearing behaviors. Lesher (1983) interviewed 60 older Beachy Amish men and women. He found that the subjects had a high level of psychological well-being because of much intergenerational contact caused by residential proximity to family and children. Family mutual aid also demonstrated correlation with psychological well-being. L.R. Miller (1997) chronicles a court case where the Virginia state health board challenged a Beachy residential facility’s use of corporal punishment on mentally handicapped children. The account provides insight into the Beachy’s beliefs on corporal punishment for children, whether in the context of the institution or in the context of family life.

Overview of the Beachy Amish Mennonite Church

The Beachy Amish Mennonites originated in Somerset County, Pennsylvania, in 1927. Moses Beachy, bishop of the local Old Order Amish congregation, had theological disagreements with his two co-ministers over the reasons to use excommunication and shunning. Beachy did not support excommunicating members whose only offense was transferring membership to the nearby Conservative Mennonite congregation. The conflict led to a split where the two ministers and half the congregation withdrew from Beachy’s leadership. Shortly after the split, Beachy allowed Sunday School, motorized vehicles, electricity, and other modern conveniences. Beachy’s congregation fellowshipped with John Stoltzfus’ unaffiliated Amish Mennonite church in Lancaster County, PA, soon after the split (Mast 1950, Beachy 1955).

Beginning largely in the 1940s, factions from the Amish church joined the movement. They requested help from Beachy and Stoltzfus. Churches sprouted in Ohio, Virginia, Indiana, and Iowa. In the 1950s, as more ex-Amish joined the Beachys, the constituency adopted a mission mindset through domestic and overseas work (Yoder 1987), originally brought on by the East Germany refugee crisis in West Germany (Petersheim 2005). As the church became more ideologically distant from the Amish, young adults who had grown up in the Beachy setting constituted a large portion of people joining the church. Some conservative Mennonites and a few non-Anabaptists also joined the Beachys in the latter half of the 20^th century.

Because the Beachys do not have a conference structure, individual church practice of Biblical principles varies largely. On one hand, the Beachys are proud of their church autonomy and the absence of conference. On the other hand, this has allowed for so much variability within the Beachy church as a whole that groups with marked differences in standard of practice typically do not share fellowship (Anderson 2006).

Quantitative Analysis: Fertility Rates, Marriages, and Church Membership

Data Collection and Computations

Four sources were used to construct figures and data sets starting in 1957, when data were first available, through 2005. These sources were the Calvary Messenger, the Amish Mennonite Directory 2000, the Mennonite Yearbook, and the Mennonite Church Directory.

The Calvary Messenger is the Beachy constituency’s general monthly periodical. Each issue has a section listing reported births and marriages. The total birth and weddings reports were tallied for each year from 1971-2005. While many Beachys report births and marriages to the Calvary Messenger, some do not. Therefore, it is assumed that a proportional number of people will and will not report each year. The data can then be viewed as representing trends in births and marriages instead of a census report. This information is displayed graphically in Figure 1.

The Calvary Messenger was also used to calculate a rough average fertility rate (AFR) each year from 1992 to 2005. For each year, the number of reported weddings in the past 20 years, not including the current year (to give women one year after marriage to bear a child), is tallied. The number twenty was selected, as it would cover most of the women capable at that point of having children. The number of weddings, therefore, represents the number of women able to bear children. (There are only a trace number of births outside of wedlock among Beachys.) The total number of weddings during the selected periods is divided into that year’s reported number of births times 20, assuming that the selected population would have the same AFR every year for twenty years. The resulting number is the estimated AFR for that year of married women in their approximate child bearing years. The data for 1992 to 2005 are graphed in Figure 2; 1992 was used as a starting year because data were unavailable prior to 1971, and a 21-year interval is needed to calculate the AFR. Broken homes and deaths are infrequent enough that these instances should not change the AFRs significantly.

The Amish Mennonite Directory 2000 lists detailed church information for all Amish Mennonite churches, including the Beachy Amish Mennonites and other closely related groups. The directory was used to calculate a general AFR for older women since the Calvary Messenger is not old enough to do a similar calculation for years prior to 1992. Thirteen churches (about 10% of the total number of congregations) were selected using systematic sampling based on every eleventh entry in the alphabetical index. (One non-Beachy church was excluded from the sample.) Using cluster sampling for each church, the number of children was tallied for all of the living women born on or before 1955. The total fertility rate (TFR) for all women in this sample was 1239 children for 203 women. The average fertility rate (AFR) for this representative population is 6.10 children per married woman.

The Mennonite Yearbook provided church membership numbers for most of the years from 1957 to 1997. From 1999 to 2005, the Mennonite Church Directory published by Christian Light Publications continued with this data where the Mennonite Yearbook discontinued reports on the Beachys. Church membership numbers are somewhat indicative of birth rate numbers since the membership is largely comprised of people born into a Beachy home. Printed statistics are treated as current the year before the publication, as both the Yearbook and Directory are published at the beginning of the listed year. Church membership from 1957 to 2005 is graphed in Figure 3.

Analysis

The overall trend in the data is that the AFR has reached a ceiling of growth since 1991. This can be seen in the yearly summations of birth rates in Figure 1. The rising slope peaked in 1991, and since then there has been much variation from year to year but no longer the upward trend. This contrast is displayed graphically in Figures 4 and 5, based on the birth data from Figure 1. Figure 4 exponentially predicts the future TFR (as reported by the Calvary Messenger) in 20 years based on data from 1971 to 1991, and Figure 5 does the same based on data from 1971 to 2005.

The addition of the last thirteen years reduces the upward slope, indicating that these years have not had as high an AFR. If the trend continues steadily, then the current generation can expect to have about 57% less children in 2025 than what was expected in 1991 for 2025. However, if the TFR does not increase at the overall rate, perhaps continuing its faltering or even declining, then the percentage will be even higher, and the Calvary Messenger may have to reduce the printed space dedicated to birth announcements.

The AFRs of the women in 1990s and early 2000s is less than the AFR of older women surveyed in the Amish Mennonite Directory 2000. The average of the AFRs from 1991 to 2005 is 5.22. The AFR of the older women born 1955 and before is 6.10, a difference of 0.88. The younger women’s average was especially brought down by numbers in recent years, notably 2000 (3.92), 2002 (4.56), 2003 (4.51), 2004 (4.93), and 2005 (4.97).

All of the aforementioned conclusions have repercussions for the Beachy’s membership rate. Figure 3 shows that the church has been increasing at a steady rate from 1957 to 2005 with only occasional variation. Children usually join the church in their mid-teens. This means that the TFR (as reported in the Calvary Messenger) roof reached in 1991 in Figure 1 should show up in the next few years in the membership levels, verifying the above conclusions, unless other variables make up for the decrease (such as more non-Beachys joining the church).

Qualitative Analysis: Questionnaires

Data Collection

While the Old Order Amish forbid artificial/commercial contraception (Wasao 1995), the Beachys have no official position. Most churches and couples practice much reserve in discussing contraception openly. Therefore, it is difficult to predict what percentage of couples uses artificial birth control and what views couples hold. Ideally, a study of this nature would be able to survey a representative population of Beachy couples on their practices and beliefs. Since couples hesitate to speak about their private practices, two adjustments were made to the ideal study. First, instead of surveying couples, the author surveyed single Beachys between the ages of 18 and 30. Singles were more open to discussing their beliefs and intentions than adults, perhaps because singles have no opportunity to use contraception. The second adjustment is not attempting to survey a representative population, as the group surveyed does not actually represent current practice. Instead, results are meant to identify various thoughts on birth control and family size. Even though representative results cannot be extracted from the survey responses, trends can be verified when juxtaposed with the quantitative data.

The respondents completed a two-page questionnaire. The goals of the questionnaire were to sample opinions about 1) the number of children couples should have, and 2) contraception. The questionnaire included 14 questions, 12 of which either were closed or had a response of a fixed number. Two questions were open-ended and two more could have been answered with an open response. Some respondents wrote additional comments next to some of the closed questions. These comments were considered in the analysis. Email surveys were administered to TBH members while paper surveys were distributed to FMH staff.

Respondents were pooled from two sources: the staff at Faith Mission Home (FMH) in Albemarle County, VA, and the members of The Beachy Hangout (TBH). FMH is a voluntary service unit that provides residential care for mentally handicapped children. The staff is comprised of single Beachy and conservative Mennonite young people as well as several married couples. Most singles are between the ages of 18 and 30 and represent a geographic and ideological variety of Beachy churches. TBH is an email forum with about 70 members. Members are also mostly single and between the ages of 18 and 30 and represent a geographic and ideological variety of Beachy churches.

FMH Beachy staff and TBH members were notified of the opportunity to participate in this study. To minimize surveying a bias population, the notification did not include the subject matter. Those volunteering to fill out the questionnaire committed to returning it, even if they had reservation after the subject was disclosed. Fifteen members of TBH and six FMH staff volunteered to complete the questionnaire.

In addition, two married couples volunteered to complete a slightly modified questionnaire, and a Beachy minister accepted an interview with the author. The two couples joined TBH as singles, married, and remained on the forum. They both agreed to respond to a questionnaire without knowing the subject matter. In an interview, Phil Beiler, a missionary minister in Romania, expounded upon views he shared in a sermon. He is in his late 40s and has been married since he was 21 years of age.

Analysis Part I: Family Size

The first goal was to survey views on family sizes. Beachy young people base many of their views and rationales on Beachy teachings in sermons, Sunday School, Bible studies, literature, and other presentations. The views espoused by church leaders and older church members are echoed in the survey responses, as is evident by repetitious comments from several respondents. However, views and rationales may have other origins, some deemed worldly by the Beachys. A few ideas may also be the respondent’s own.

The precedent set by the respondents’ childhood family size also shaped their views. Eight directly referenced their childhood family as having influence on their desired family size. In addition, several others indirectly cited their childhood family. Some had a positive experience in their family, whether “small” or “large,” and thus wanted a similar size. Others had a negative experience with their childhood family size, and thus wanted the opposite. Apparently, the failure or success of a family is attributed to the size more so than the parents’ management.

“Large family” and “small family” are relative terms but are here defined as six or more children and five or less, respectively. One exception was made for a respondent desiring six children. He came from a family of eleven children and wanted six. Due to the significant reduction and his open question responses, he was classified as a proponent of small families.

Large Families

Proponents for large families mainly presented two concepts: the value of sibling interaction and the pleasure of children. These respondents express their interest in children and family through social wealth, which finds fulfillment in large families.

The Value of Sibling Interaction: Those wanting large families frequently cite the importance of sibling relationships. Large families are understood to function as a unit. In this setting, siblings help one another. They teach each other how to mature and how to function socially in the Beachy culture. These conclusions are substantiated by the following comments:

· “I can’t imagine doing without any one of my siblings, and it’s amazing to observe how we all contribute to each other’s well-being.”

· “A larger family translates into the home becoming a mini-training center where older siblings learn to care for/help younger siblings. Of course, there is the eye toward one big happy family.”

· “(A family) should be large enough … so that (siblings) learn to relate with those older and younger and learn the character qualities necessary to survive in relationships that require giving and taking.”

The importance of siblings is understood even to one respondent who would like two children: “I don’t... believe that growing up as an only child would be an ideal experience; hence, the number two (children).”

The Pleasure of Children: The aesthetical value of children and family relationships are pet topics for many Beachy ministers and writers, as is evidenced in tracts, books, sermons, and periodicals such as Calvary Messenger. One respondent said, “God considers children a blessing”; another said, “Children are valued in our culture.” The married respondents all emphasized the importance and value of children. When asked what factors contributed to the number of children they would like to have, one young married man said, “My wife and I value and enjoy children. My perspective has been shaped by my family and culture, but more fundamentally by my understanding of the value God places on children...” The other young married man said, “(The) amount of children in my parent’s family and the value placed on children (affected my decision).” A few singles made small comments such as, “I love children,” and “(children) can be fun.”

Small Families

Proponents of small families made two main arguments: there is the need to provide sufficient attention and training for each child and there is the need to provide financially. These respondents express their interest in children and family through parental provision, which meets its goal with smaller family sizes. Having children is a matter of “logistics” and is done at a “personal sacrifice of time and money,” as two respondents wrote.

Providing Sufficient Attention and Training: Six respondents noted the importance of giving each child adequate attention and spiritual training. They came from families with a range of three to eleven children and desired families with a range of two to six children. The rationale is that if there are fewer children in the family, the father and mother can spend more time with each of them individually. One respondent said, “...the children in a large family don’t get the proper time or attention that each individual needs.”

This idea may cause smaller families to function like a group of individuals with varying goals instead of as a consolidated unit. Parents treat the children primarily as individuals with specialized needs instead of primarily as a unit with a common need. Thus, Beachys with smaller families may have adopted a mainstream Western view of nuclear families, as one person wrote: “Probably today's trend of smaller families plays a part on the size of my desired family.”

Providing Financially: Several respondents considered the cost of having children. This concern may be a product of a recent change in wealth flow, the direction money goes within a family. In earlier generations, most Beachy men, like the Old Order Amish, were farmers. Children were not seen as cost extractive but rather as financially beneficial. When the children were a few years old, they began helping on the farm. Thus, the wealth flowed from the children to the parents. Elmer S. Yoder (1993, 73) discusses the concept of a child “working out their age” in the life of Simon L. Yoder, the first minister ordained in the Beachy church. Yoder writes,

“It was the practice for young people… to work at home until twenty-one, which was the legal age, after which one was ‘on his own.’ Prior to the legal age, the income from one’s employment, whether at home or working as a hired person, went to the parents, not the young person doing the work. This meant that if a young man married before the age of twenty-one his parents were deprived of some income.”

A young adult married before twenty-one could either continue working under his parents or pay his parents for the time he should have been working for them. To some extent, this is still a common practice, even in working class families. Many Beachy young people have to start paying their parents rent for food and shelter when they reach the age of 21.

In recent years, Beachy men have moved away from farming and towards blue-collar jobs. According to the recently published Amish Mennonite Directory 2005, of which Beachys make up a large majority of listings, 887 of those employed worked in farming. However, almost as many are employed in general construction, at 821. Many others are employed in other non-farming occupations, such as woodworking (241), sales (209), and trucking (143), the third, fourth, and fifth ranked occupations, respectively. Children typically do not contribute to the income of a household for non-farming families. Because there are many more non-farmers today, children have become an expense. The wealth flow now goes from parent to child. Parents have to pay for clothes, food, and private schooling for their children without any monetary return from them. Johnson-Weiner (2001) further discusses the contrasts between Amish farmers and working class Beachys in relation to the financial and social role wives (and here, children) loose when the husband works for a regular salary.

In addition, another financial concern was seen while the author engaged in separate conversations (February and March 2006) with two older married Beachy men. Accordingly, more Beachy families are having children born at hospitals. The financial burden of going to the hospital for each child may prompt couples to prevent conception, regardless of personal desires for more children.

Spiritual Discussions on Family Size

Most respondents made at least one spiritual reference (e.g. a Bible verse or a theological idea) on the free response questions. This lends itself to a spiritual debate over procreation. Psalm 127:3-5 was the most frequently cited scripture, referenced by four people:

“Lo, children are an heritage of the LORD: and the fruit of the womb is his reward. As arrows are in the hand of the mighty man; so are children of the youth. Happy is the man that hath his quiver full of them: they shall not be ashamed, but they shall speak with the enemies in the gate.”

The creation account in Genesis is another frequently referenced passage. Genesis 1:28, cited by one respondent, says, “…God said unto them, Be fruitful, and multiply, and replenish the earth, and subdue it…” Another respondent, who wanted nine children, said, “When God created Adam and Eve, he told them to be fruitful and multiply and replenish the earth … God expects mankind to have children within the bounds naturally given to mankind by God.” Another respondent, anticipating the argument based in Genesis, replied, “…mankind has fulfilled God’s command to fill the earth. Now we just need to keep it full.” Luke 1:42 was another passage referenced, but cited by just one person: “And she spake out with a loud voice, and said, Blessed art thou among women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb.”

Respondents on both sides of the discussion expressed interest in serving God through quantity of offspring. Three respondents said that the more children they have, the more people there will be to serve God. One of them said, “A larger family means more potential Kingdom workers. More family members means that the family can reach out into more opportunities in the community.” Another said, “A godly family... grows the kingdom of God both through the children themselves and by the influence they have on others.” However, others feel they can best serve God with fewer children: “…commitments to family can limit one’s effectiveness in the world at large; the more children I have, the more prolonged the commitment to raise them will be.” Those wanting large families paid closer attention to the children’s influence in the world while those wanting small families examined their own ability to be influential.

Of particular interest is the lack of spiritual response on many surveys. When asked directly, eight of the respondents did not identify a correlation between their spiritual beliefs and their desired family size. Six of them wanted a small family. The two who wanted large families were unresponsive on this question as well as on other open sections of the survey. One respondent who wanted a small family said, “(My faith) probably hasn't had a large effect on my decisions in this case, though I can't say for sure that it hasn't at all... I need to think more about why I choose what I do.” It may be that the six do not know how their faith has affected their decision because there is virtually no affirmative teaching on small families in the Beachy church. Meanwhile, the proponents of large families have an arsenal of arguments derived from church instruction.

Analysis Pat II: Contraception

The second goal of the questionnaire was to sample views on contraception. As discussed earlier, the Beachys had high fertility rates from 1991 and prior. Presently, the average fertility rate is decreasing, and the usage of birth control is one perceived problem targeted by proponents of large families.

Contraception as a Way to Maintain a Small Family Size

The debate over contraception does not center on the actual usage of the product so much as its usage to maintain small families. Most respondents appear to understand contraception usage as synonymous with contraception usage with the notion of producing a small family. Therefore, the debate on limiting family size carries over to the debate on contraception usage.

At the 2005 Ministers’ Meetings for the Beachy constituency in Stuarts Draft, VA, Phil Beiler spoke on the topic, “A Vision for Godly Homes.” A synopsis of his message was printed in the February 2006 Calvary Messenger. Beiler is quoted as saying,

“The first commandment given to Adam and Eve was to be fruitful and multiply. That means to have children. That was and is God’s intention for families. A conviction for life includes welcoming children... God loves life. In Psalm 127:3 and 5, children are described as ‘an inheritance,’ and also as ‘arrows.’ The full quiver speaks not of how many children you want, but how many children God wants to give you. We have many abortions today, because people don’t love life. We say that’s in the world and that’s understandable. I think it is really sad that Christians artificially limit the size of their families for the same reasons that people in the world have abortions. Are we really free from the world in this matter?”

In an interview with the author (April 2005), Beiler said that Beachy couples may have fewer children in order to keep their wealth and have a “big car” and a “big house;” the couple “wants freedom from children.” He says further that if you “reject children, you accept worldly concepts,” and that if couples accept having children, they will establish godly priorities in their spending habits, their free time, and their home. Beiler’s usage of Psalm 127:3-5 and analogy of the arrows and quiver are common, as seen in the responses on several questionnaires.

However, Beiler takes the family teaching a step further with his allusion to birth control. According to questionnaires, Beiler’s profile of the anti-children Beachy couple only closely matches one respondent. This respondent wanted two children and said the he has “an overall lack of great interest in dealing with children.” All other respondents either expressed interest in children or justified their desire for small families without noting disinterest in children. It is not that the respondents have varying interest in children so much as they have varying opinions on how to provide the highest quality life for the family, and family size is the major variable.

One of the married couples provided an interesting case. They use contraception. However, they would like to have nine children. The husband said, “We have chosen to space children for my wife’s health and well-being... We should seek to reflect the value that God places on children, even if we choose to space pregnancies.” By using contraception to space the intervals between children, the couple can keep the wife’s body from being worn out by frequent births. To what extent this method is practiced among Beachys is unknown, but the couples’ response would indicate that Beachy couples are aware of this practice to some extent. Bledsoe (2002) expounds on a similar scenario where Islamic women in the Gambia use contraception to space pregnancies so that they have the strength to bear children for many years.

Abortion Concerns

A second concern expressed by a few respondents is the relationship between abortion and contraception. Beachys consider abortion immoral at any stage; it is not a morally acceptable way to plan families. One of the married respondents who uses contraception said, “There are also many forms of birth control that are morally wrong because they work after conception has occurred, in effect performing an early abortion.” For another respondent, the risk of abortion is a deterrent to using contraception: “I've heard of at least one birth control pill that causes miscarriage (abortion) if the other 'part' of the medication doesn't work—that fact is STRONG motivation to get the facts before I change my position.” And yet, some may still use contraception without realizing that it is causing an early abortion. This is a concern to respondents regardless of stance on contraception. One respondent was not aware of the potential for abortion when using contraception: “…I know that using contraceptives is not abortion…”

God’s Will

Beachys believe that God is omnipotent. No respondents contested God’s power to overcome contraception. The point of contention was to what extent God would act upon His will for couples.

Only one respondent who planned to use contraception to have a small family defended his position with spiritual rationale:

“I find little evidence for the view that Christianity precludes the use of contraceptive measures, and thus see such technology as one way to reduce ‘friction’ on my path through life. If, however, God has other plans (i.e., conception occurs despite the use of contraceptive measures), I’ll accept that as an indicator of what He wishes to happen.”

Other proponents of contraception and small families expressed that their faith has not affected their decision. Respondents opposed to contraception had varying views on the extent God intervenes. On one side, a respondent said, “God is more powerful than any scientific/natural anything, so it almost seems rather futile (to use birth control).” On the other side, another respondent believed that contraception is used in direct opposition to God, yet God will rarely intervene if at all: “(Using contraception is) like telling God that ‘I’m going to control my life not you…I know how many kids I can take care of, not you.’” A third respondent said:

“When God created Adam and Eve, he told them to be fruitful and multiply and replenish the earth. It seems to me that God would have introduced the “correct” product back at the beginning if He had deemed it necessary to have such a product.”

The creation account is used by the respondent as an indicator of God’s universal will

The Beachy Constituency on Contraception

The respondents were asked what action the Beachy church as a whole should take on the usage of contraception. The three options were for the Beachy church to take a stand against contraception usage, to declare an open policy on contraception, or to continue without a declared position. True to the Beachy’s autonomous constituency structure, the highest number (11 of 24) opted for the church to continue without a declared position. Both those who planned to use contraception as well as those opposed to it selected this response. Four wanted an open position and three wanted a position against contraception usage. One of the three wrote, “A position against the use of birth control would be wise since I assume that most people simply do as they please.” For him, the concern for Beachys pursuing their own desires in this matter is perhaps more pressing than the concern for congregational autonomy.

A number of respondents opted for the open response, “other.” They were asked to explain their thoughts. Three of the respondents expressed interest in having more teaching on the issues of family size as it relate to using contraception. Teachings on family are apparently abundant. Open teachings on contraception are few. A couple other respondents wrote that the church should encourage families to have more children instead of declaring a position.

Conclusion

The Beachy church will soon be approaching its 100-year anniversary in 2027. Yet in the 20 years before this date, many present and future changes will continue to develop the constituency’s identity as Amish Mennonites. The demographic period in the past 15 years will have a weighty impact on the church. It is a reflection of both a dynamic theology and changing social paradigm of the individual’s function in the family and community. If the recent past is any indication of the near future, the Beachy church will see a tapering church membership as a product of a somewhat stagnant total fertility rate maintained since the early 1990s. The paper has shown that the current generation of Beachys through the 1990s and 2000s is having on average fewer children than the previous generation. In 2025, as the Beachys are preparing to celebrate 100 years, what sort of model will manifest itself? Will the Beachys have recovered their pre-1990s burgeoning fertility, reaching estimates made in Figure 4? Or will birth rates suddenly shrink to the point of having, as demographer Phillip Longman (2004) suggests of Western society, an “empty cradle” crisis, leaving only a handful of young people to support an aging Beachy constituency?

This paper suggests that, while birth rates are changing, it is not a coincidence. Several factors are guiding the alteration, and an increasing acceptance of smaller families as evidenced by decreasing average fertility rates is a top concern. The decrease in the average fertility rate is not because Beachys have a disinterest in children, but is rather fueled by new ideas on how best to operate a family. Some retain the traditional view that a family should operate as a unit and thus finds fulfillment as a large family. This concept is propagated over pulpits and by other means of instruction. Others view a family as a group of individuals that have individual needs that must be met by the parents. This paradigm lends itself to small families where each child gets a larger slice of the pie. Family size concerns carry over to discussions on commercial contraception. To many respondents, contraception is synonymous with small families, so a similar debate is carried out on this front. As the Beachys continue to embrace their constituency’s autonomy, the decisions of each church and of each individual will likely determine the demographic fate of the sect: will the current generation of young people come to accept historical teachings on large families or will more Beachys understand smaller families as an acceptable alternative to a heritage marked by high fertility?

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Longman, P. 2004. The Empty Cradle: How Falling Birthrates Threaten World Prosperity and What to Do about It. New York: Basic Books.

Mast, J.B. 1950. Facts Concerning the Beachy A. M. Division of 1927. Meyersdale, PA: Menno J. Yoder.

Miller, D. 2000. Amish Mennonite Directory 2000. Millersburg, OH: Abana Books.

Miller, D. 2005. Amish Mennonite Directory 2005. Millersburg, OH: Abana Books.

Miller, L.R. 1997. The Miracle of Faith. Free Union, VA: Faith Mission Home.

Miller, N.L. 1997. Childbearing Health Practices as Described by Old Order Amish Women. M.S. Thesis. East Lansing: Michigan State University.

Miller, P.L., ed. 2006. Ministers’ Meeting Messages—2005. Calvary Messenger. Vol. 38, No. 2, 23-28.

Morris, B.J. 1994. An Examination of Child Abuse in Five Beachy Amish Congregations: An Application of Korbin's Cross-Cultural Model of Child Abuse. M.S. Thesis. Oxford, OH: Miami University.

Petersheim, H.J. 2005. Bringing in the Sheaves. Sugarcreek, OH: Carlisle Printing.

Wasao, S.W. 1995. Fertility Differentials among Three Amish Affiliations in Ohio. Ph. D. Thesis. Columbus: Ohio State University.

Yoder, E.S. 1987. The Beachy Amish Mennonite Fellowship Churches. Hartville, OH: Diakonia Ministries.

Yoder, E.S. 1993. Simon L. & Lydia E. Yoder: 20^th Century Pilgrimage. Hartville, OH: Diakonia Ministries.

Zook, E.D. (Vol. 48-62), L. Miller (Vol. 63-65), and J.E. Horsch (Vol. 66-85), eds. 1957-1997. Beachy Amish Mennonites. Mennonite Yearbook, 1957 to 1997. Vol. 48-85.

Appendix: Completed Surveys

SURVEY #1-SINGLE MALE

1. Was the Beachy Amish Mennonite church the first church in which you had your membership? A. Yes

2. What is your gender? B. Male

3. Have you made a voluntary decision/commitment to remain single? B. No

4. Are you married? B. No

5. How many children would you like to have? 6

6. What factors contribute to the number of children you would like to have? I think that the children in a large family don’t get the proper time or attention that each individual needs.

7. Do you plan to use any products to space/control conceptions? C. Not sure

8. How has your faith and beliefs affected your decisions in the above questions? I don’t know

9. How many children did your mother have? 11

10. What number birth are you of your mother? 3rd

11. What is the age range of your mother? C. 45-49

12. Is your mother currently affiliated with the Beachy Amish Mennonites? A. Yes

13. How do you think the 16-35 generation of Beachys compares to their parents’ generation? B. The 16-35 generation is having and will be having LESS children.

14. Should the Beachy Amish Mennonite constituency… C. continue without a declared position.

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SURVEY #2-MARRIED MALE

1. Was the Beachy Amish Mennonite church the first church in which you had your membership? A. Yes

2. What is your gender? B. Male

3. Have you made a voluntary decision/commitment to remain single? B. No

4. Are you married? A. Yes

5a. How many children do you currently have? None. Just married

5b. How many more children would you like to have? 6 - 10

6. What factors have contributed to the number of children you have and/or plan to have in the future? Amount of children in my parents family and the value placed on children. They are “arrows” and the only thing we raise/do that will last into eternity

7. Have you used any products to space/control conceptions? B. No Methods but not products

8. How has your faith and beliefs affected the number of children you have had so far and children you plan to have in the future? Stated in #6

9. How many children did your mother have? 11 Children

10. What number birth are you of your mother? First born

11. What is the age range of your mother? C. 45-49

12. Is your mother currently affiliated with the Beachy Amish Mennonites? A. Yes

13. How do you think the 16-35 generation of Beachys compares to their parents’ generation? C. The 16-35 generation is having and will be having about the SAME number of children.

14. Should the Beachy Amish Mennonite constituency… D. other- Declare that children are valuable and have more instead of less

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SURVEY #3-SINGLE FEMALE

1. Was the Beachy Amish Mennonite church the first church in which you had your membership? A. Yes

2. What is your gender? A. Female

3. Have you made a voluntary decision/commitment to remain single? B. No

4. Are you married? B. No

5. How many children would you like to have? 6-10

6. What factors contribute to the number of children you would like to have? Having seeing the blessings that a large family can have with the older siblings relating to the younger, and the give and take that brings.

7. Do you plan to use any products to space/control conceptions? C. Not sure

8. How has your faith and beliefs affected your decisions in the above questions? “Lo, children are an heritage of the Lord:….as arrows are in the hand of a mighty man; so are children of the youth.” Ps. 127:3-4

9. How many children did your mother have? 8

10. What number birth are you of your mother? first

11. What is the age range of your mother? D. 50+

12. Is your mother currently affiliated with the Beachy Amish Mennonites? A. Yes

13. How do you think the 16-35 generation of Beachys compares to their parents’ generation? B. The 16-35 generation is having and will be having LESS children.

14. Should the Beachy Amish Mennonite constituency… D. other- Give more teaching in this area

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SURVEY #4-VOLUNTARILY SINGLE MALE

1. Was the Beachy Amish Mennonite church the first church in which you had your membership? A. Yes

2. What is your gender? B. Male

3. Have you made a voluntary decision/commitment to remain single? A. Yes

9. How many children did your mother have? 5

10. What number birth are you of your mother? Fourth birth

11. What is the age range of your mother? D. 50+

12. Is your mother currently affiliated with the Beachy Amish Mennonites? A. Yes

13. How do you think the 16-35 generation of Beachys compares to their parents’ generation? C. The 16-35 generation is having and will be having about the SAME number of children.

14. Should the Beachy Amish Mennonite constituency… C. continue without a declared position.

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SURVEY #5-SINGLE MALE

1. Was the Beachy Amish Mennonite church the first church in which you had your membership? A. Yes

2. What is your gender? B. Male

3. Have you made a voluntary decision/commitment to remain single? B. No

4. Are you married? B. No

5. How many children would you like to have? Five

6. What factors contribute to the number of children you would like to have? I would like a faily [sic] equal balance between the genders. Probably today's trend of smaller families plays a part on the size of my desired family. I also want to be able to adequately provide for their needs physically, spiritually, and emotionally.

7. Do you plan to use any products to space/control conceptions? C. Not sure

8. How has your faith and beliefs affected your decisions in the above questions? It probably hasn't had a large effect on my decisions in this case, though I can't say for sure that it hasn't at all. Possibly to a small degree my faith has affected my decision for the desired size of my family. I need to think more about why I choose what I do.

9. How many children did your mother have? Six

10. What number birth are you of your mother? Second birth

11. What is the age range of your mother? C. 45-49

12. Is your mother currently affiliated with the Beachy Amish Mennonites? A. Yes

13. How do you think the 16-35 generation of Beachys compares to their parents' generation? B. The 16-35 generation is having and will be having LESS children.

14. Should the Beachy Amish Mennonite constituency… I think the subject of birth control should be addressed in our constituency but ultimately I think it should be left up to each couple to decide what God's will is for their family concerning the use of it.

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SURVEY #6-SINGLE MALE

1. Was the Beachy Amish Mennonite church the first church in which you had your membership? A. Yes

2. What is your gender? B. Male

3. Have you made a voluntary decision/commitment to remain single? B. No

4. Are you married? B. No

5. How many children would you like to have? Four to six.

6. What factors contribute to the number of children you would like to have? The size of family I come from provides a means of comparison. The main factor for me is the parents’ ability to provide adequate individual attention and training to their children.

7. Do you plan to use any products to space/control conceptions? C. Not sure

8. How has your faith and beliefs affected your decisions in the above questions? I believe that man is created in God’s image and is valuable. It is important that children are loved and trained carefully. These things have eternal consequences.

9. How many children did your mother have? She had five.

10. What number birth are you of your mother? First birth

11. What is the age range of your mother? D. 50+

12. Is your mother currently affiliated with the Beachy Amish Mennonites? A. Yes

13. How do you think the 16-35 generation of Beachys compares to their parents’ generation? B. The 16-35 generation is having and will be having LESS children.

14. Should the Beachy Amish Mennonite constituency… D. other- See number 7. I don’t feel I’m in the position to say what the constituency should do when I haven’t come to a personal position on this issue. It is something I have thought about, and it is something I would like to discuss with some brethren who I know have done some thinking on this issue if I were to get married. As a single who is not dating it would be a bit embarrassing to talk to these men at this point

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SURVEY #7-SINGLE FEMALE

1. Was the Beachy Amish Mennonite church the first church in which you had your membership? B. No

2. What is your gender? A. Female

3. Have you made a voluntary decision/commitment to remain single? B. No

4. Are you married? B. No

5. How many children would you like to have? 2

6. What factors contribute to the number of children you would like to have? The size of the family in which I grew up. Also, by observing other families and how they are able to relate to their children depending on how many they have.

7. Do you plan to use any products to space/control conceptions? A. Yes

8. How has your faith and beliefs affected your decisions in the above questions? It has not.

9. How many children did your mother have? 6

10. What number birth are you of your mother? 1st born

11. What is the age range of your mother? B. 40-44

12. Is your mother currently affiliated with the Beachy Amish Mennonites? A. Yes

13. How do you think the 16-35 generation of Beachys compares to their parents’ generation? B. The 16-35 generation is having and will be having LESS children.

14. Should the Beachy Amish Mennonite constituency… C. continue without a declared position.

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SURVEY #8-SINGLE FEMALE

1. Was the Beachy Amish Mennonite church the first church in which you had your membership? A. Yes

2. What is your gender? A. Female

3. Have you made a voluntary decision/commitment to remain single? B. No

4. Are you married? B. No

5. How many children would you like to have? I would like to have 4-5 children.

6. What factors contribute to the number of children you would like to have? I base it on the good experiences I have had with my own family that I grew up in. I can’t imagine doing without any one of my siblings, and it’s amazing to observe how we all contribute to each other’s well-being.

7. Do you plan to use any products to space/control conceptions? A. Yes

8. How has your faith and beliefs affected your decisions in the above questions? It has not.

9. How many children did your mother have? Seven

10. What number birth are you of your mother? Fourth birth

11. What is the age range of your mother? D. 50+

12. Is your mother currently affiliated with the Beachy Amish Mennonites? B. No Conservative Mennonite

13. How do you think the 16-35 generation of Beachys compares to their parents’ generation? B. The 16-35 generation is having and will be having LESS children.

14. Should the Beachy Amish Mennonite constituency… C. continue without a declared position.

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SURVEY #9-SINGLE MALE

1. Was the Beachy Amish Mennonite church the first church in which you had your membership? A. Yes

2. What is your gender? B. Male

3. Have you made a voluntary decision/commitment to remain single? B. No

4. Are you married? B. No

5. How many children would you like to have? 9

6. What factors contribute to the number of children you would like to have? A larger family means more potential Kingdom workers. More family members means that the family can reach out into more opportunities in the community. A larger family translates into the home becoming a mini-training center where older siblings learn to care for/help younger siblings. Of course, there is the eye toward one big happy family.

7. Do you plan to use any products to space/control conceptions? B. No

8. How has your faith and beliefs affected your decisions in the above questions? When God created Adam and Eve, he told them to be fruitful and multiply and replenish the earth. It seems to me that God would have introduced the “correct” product back at the beginning if He had deemed it necessary to have such a product. God saw man and women as He had created them, and He saw that what He had made was good, having been made in His own image. Under normal circumstances, I believe God expects mankind to have children within the bounds naturally given to mankind by God.

9. How many children did your mother have? 5

10. What number birth are you of your mother? first birth

11. What is the age range of your mother? D. 50+

12. Is your mother currently affiliated with the Beachy Amish Mennonites? A. Yes

13. How do you think the 16-35 generation of Beachys compares to their parents’ generation? A. The 16-35 generation is having and will be having MORE children.

14. Should the Beachy Amish Mennonite constituency… D. other- The Beachy Amish Mennonite constituency should declare a statement which states all Scriptural declarations or inferences regarding birth control and any surrounding issues. This statement should include interpretive remarks concerning birth control and surrounding issues.

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SURVEY #10-SINGLE MALE

1. Was the Beachy Amish Mennonite church the first church in which you had your membership? A. Yes

2. What is your gender? B. Male

3. Have you made a voluntary decision/commitment to remain single? B. No

4. Are you married? B. No

5. How many children would you like to have? 2

6. What factors contribute to the number of children you would like to have? Factors include: -Personal sacrifices of time and money -Quality of life for the children, my wife, and myself -An overall lack of great interest in dealing with children, balanced against the fact that I would feel as though I hadn’t fully explored life if I were married and had no children. I don’t, however, believe that growing up as an only child would be an ideal experience; hence, the number two.

7. Do you plan to use any products to space/control conceptions? A. Yes

8. How has your faith and beliefs affected your decisions in the above questions? Though I stop short of Paul’s recommendation of avoidance of marriage, I am quite aware that commitments to family can limit one’s effectiveness in the world at large; the more children I have, the more prolonged the commitment to raise them will be. I find little evidence for the view that Christianity precludes the use of contraceptive measures, and thus see such technology as one way to reduce “friction” on my path through life. If, however, God has other plans (i.e., conception occurs despite the use of contraceptive measures), I’ll accept that as an indicator of what He wishes to happen.

9. How many children did your mother have? 3

10. What number birth are you of your mother? First birth

11. What is the age range of your mother? D. 50+

12. Is your mother currently affiliated with the Beachy Amish Mennonites? A. Yes

13. How do you think the 16-35 generation of Beachys compares to their parents’ generation? B. The 16-35 generation is having and will be having FEWER children.

14. Should the Beachy Amish Mennonite constituency… B. declare a position of allowing couples to choose their family sizes.

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SURVEY #11-SINGLE MALE

1. Was the Beachy Amish Mennonite church the first church in which you had your membership? A. Yes

2. What is your gender? B. Male

3. Have you made a voluntary decision/commitment to remain single? B. No

4. Are you married? B. No

5. How many children would you like to have? 3

6. What factors contribute to the number of children you would like to have? Logistics are the major factor. I also think mankind has fulfilled God’s command to fill the earth. Now we just need to keep it full.

7. Do you plan to use any products to space/control conceptions? C. Not sure

8. How has your faith and beliefs affected your decisions in the above questions? It has not

9. How many children did your mother have? 7

10. What number birth are you of your mother? 2

11. What is the age range of your mother? B. 40-44

12. Is your mother currently affiliated with the Beachy Amish Mennonites? A. Yes

13. How do you think the 16-35 generation of Beachys compares to their parents’ generation? B. The 16-35 generation is having and will be having LESS children.

14. Should the Beachy Amish Mennonite constituency… B. declare a position of allowing couples to choose their family sizes.

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SURVEY #12-SINGLE MALE

1. Was the Beachy Amish Mennonite church the first church in which you had your membership? A. Yes

2. What is your gender? B. Male

3. Have you made a voluntary decision/commitment to remain single? B. No

4. Are you married? B. No

5. How many children would you like to have? 5

6. What factors contribute to the number of children you would like to have? It should not be enormous so that I can provide for the spiritual, emotional, and monetary/physical needs of each one. It should be large enough that so that they learn to relate with those older and younger and learn the character qualities necessary to survive in relationships that require giving and taking.

7. Do you plan to use any products to space/control con